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维基百科，自由的百科全书
农业和农学
农业史
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农业和农学主题

农业（英語：Agriculture）包括作物种植、畜牧、渔业养殖、林业等活动，旨在生产食物或非食物原料。[1]农业是人类文明转向定居形式的里程碑，借助对驯化物种的培育与繁殖，人们获得了充足的食物与资源，并导致最初城市的发展成型。人类在10.5万年前开始从野外采集谷物，但直到1.15万年前才开始种植，并大约在1万年前驯化了绵羊、山羊、猪、牛等家畜。世界上至少有11个地区独立发展出了作物种植。自20世纪开始，基于单一作物种植的工业化农业开始占据世界农业产出的主要来源。

如今，小型农场的食物产出约占世界总量的三分之一，但大型农场正变得十分普遍。占据前1%大小的农场平均面积超过50公顷，所管理的土地面积占所有耕地面积70%。将近40%的耕地属于面积超过1,000公顷的巨型农场。不过，六分之五的农场面积仍小于2公顷。[2]

农业的主要产物是食物、纤维、能源和原材料（例如橡胶）。其中食物包括谷物、蔬菜、水果、食用油、肉类、奶制品、蛋和菌类。全球农业产出约110亿吨食物[3]，3200万吨自然纤维[4]和40亿m3木材。[5]不过，其中有14%的食物在到达零售环节之前被浪费。[6]

现代农业技术、植物育种、农业化学产品（例如杀虫剂和化肥）的发展显著增加了作物产量，但也带来了诸多生态与环境问题。选择育种和现代畜牧业技术发展促进了肉类制品产量，但同时造成了动物福利和环境问题。这些环境问题包括气候变化、地下含水层枯竭、森林砍伐、抗生素耐药性和农业污染。农业既是环境退化的起因，也深受其影响。生物多样性丧失、荒漠化、土壤退化、气候变化等因素都会降低作物产量。转基因作物被广泛使用，但也有部分国家禁止此类作物种植（英语：Regulation of genetic engineering）。

Etymology and scope

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更多信息：Horticulture § Scope

The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager 'field' and cultūra 'cultivation' or 'growing'.[7] While agriculture usually refers to human activities, certain species of ant,[8][9] termite and beetle have been cultivating crops for up to 60 million years.[10] Agriculture is defined with varying scopes, in its broadest sense using natural resources to "produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops, and their related services".[11] Thus defined, it includes arable farming, horticulture, animal husbandry and forestry, but horticulture and forestry are in practice often excluded.[11] It may also be broadly decomposed into plant agriculture, which concerns the cultivation of useful plants,[12] and animal agriculture, the production of agricultural animals.[13]

广义而言，农业是指利用自然资源生产维持生命所需的物品，包括食物、纤维、林业产品、园艺作物，以及与之相关的服务。[11]因此，广义的农业包括种植业、园艺、动物养殖（畜牧业、水产养殖等）和林业，但有时园艺和林业也被排除在外。[11]此外，农业可因管理对象不同而分为两类：植物农业，主要涉及作物的培育；动物农业，主要关注农业动物产品。[13]

History

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苏联植物学家尼古拉·伊万诺维奇·瓦维洛夫于1930年代提出的驯化植物起源中心。如今，地中海（序号为3的灰色区域）已被排除，而新几内亚（序号为P的橙色区域）则新近加入。[14][15]
主条目：农业史

起源

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主条目：新石器革命

The development of agriculture enabled the human population to grow many times larger than could be sustained by hunting and gathering.[16] Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe,[17] and included a diverse range of taxa, in at least 11 separate centers of origin.[14] Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago.[18] In the Paleolithic Levant, 23,000 years ago, cereals cultivation of emmer, barley, and oats has been observed near the sea of Galilee.[19][20] Rice was domesticated in China between 11,500 and 6,200 BC with the earliest known cultivation from 5,700 BC,[21] followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago.[22] Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan some 10,500 years ago.[23] Pig production emerged in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia,[24] where wild boar were first domesticated about 10,500 years ago.[25] In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs. Sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago,[26] and was independently domesticated in Eurasia. In Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was bred into maize by 6,000 years ago.[27] The horse was domesticated in the Eurasian Steppes around 3500 BC.[28] Scholars have offered multiple hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies indicate an initial period of intensification and increasing sedentism; examples are the Natufian culture in the Levant, and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Then, wild stands that had previously been harvested started to be planted, and gradually came to be domesticated.[29][30][31]

得益于农业发展，世界人口数量相比狩猎采集时代有了显著增长。[16]农业独立起源于多个地区[17]，根据分类单元归为至少11个起源中心。[14]早在10.5万年前，人们就已开始采集并食用野生谷物。[18]在2.3万年前新石器时代的黎凡特，人们开始在加利利海附近种植二粒小麦、大麦和燕麦。[19][20]中国先民于13,500-8200年驯化了水稻，已知最早耕种时间距今约7,700年[21]，而后绿豆、大豆、红豆也在此区域驯化。美索不达米亚人于1.3万-1.1万年前驯化了绵羊。[22]而家牛则是从1.05万年前生活在现今土耳其和巴基斯坦地区的原牛驯化而来。[23]家猪的驯化独立在欧洲、东亚和东南亚进行[24]，最早驯化时间距今约1.05万年。[25]在南美洲安第斯山脉，人们在10,000-7,000年前驯化了马铃薯，晚些时候又驯化了豆子、古柯、羊驼、大羊驼和豚鼠。高粱于7,000年前在非洲萨赫勒被驯化。棉花于5,600年前在秘鲁被驯化[26]，后也在欧亚大陆独立驯化。玉米源于野生玉蜀黍属，于6,000年前在中美洲驯化。[27]公元前3,500年左右，马在欧亚大草原被驯化。[28]关于农业的起源有大量研究，学者为此提出了众多假说。人类从狩猎采集向农业社会的转型伴随着集约化和定居（英语：Sedentism）的发展，相关过渡期案例有黎凡特地区的纳图夫文化和中国早期的新石器文化。随着生活方式的转变，人们开始在定居点种植以往在野外采集的资源，由此导致这些物种的逐渐驯化。[29][30][31]

古文明时期农业发展

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农业的起源中心及其传播路径。[32]

In Eurasia, the Sumerians started to live in villages from about 8,000 BC, relying on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and a canal system for irrigation. Ploughs appear in pictographs around 3,000 BC; seed-ploughs around 2,300 BC. Farmers grew wheat, barley, vegetables such as lentils and onions, and fruits including dates, grapes, and figs.[33] Ancient Egyptian agriculture relied on the Nile River and its seasonal flooding. Farming started in the predynastic period at the end of the Paleolithic, after 10,000 BC. Staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as flax and papyrus.[34][35] In India, wheat, barley and jujube were domesticated by 9,000 BC, soon followed by sheep and goats.[36] Cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated in Mehrgarh culture by 8,000–6,000 BC.[37][38][39] Cotton was cultivated by the 5th–4th millennium BC.[40] Archeological evidence indicates an animal-drawn plough from 2,500 BC in the Indus Valley civilisation.[41]

公元前8000年，欧亚大陆的苏美尔人开始以村庄形式定居，并依靠底格里斯河和幼发拉底河灌溉作物。其公元前3000年的象形符号中出现了犁，公元前2300年出现了播种犁。苏美尔农夫种植大麦、小麦、蔬菜（例如扁豆和洋葱）、水果（例如椰棗、葡萄和无花果）。[33]古埃及农业始于旧石器时代末期的前王朝时期，时间大约在公元前10,000年，主要依靠尼罗河和当地季节性洪水灌溉作物。当地人种植的主要粮食作物为大麦和小麦，此外还有亚麻和纸莎草等经济作物。[34][35]印度先民在公元前9,000年前驯化了小麦、大麦和枣，后续又驯化了绵羊和山羊。[36]在公元前8,000-6,000年的梅赫尔格尔文化中，巴基斯坦先民驯化了牛、绵羊和山羊。[37][38][39]棉花在公元前4-5世纪驯化。[40]此外，考古证据显示，在公元前2,500年的印度河流域文明中，出现了使用动物牵引的犁。[41]

In China, from the 5th century BC there was a nationwide granary system and widespread silk farming.[42] Water-powered grain mills were in use by the 1st century BC,[43] followed by irrigation.[44] By the late 2nd century, heavy ploughs had been developed with iron ploughshares and mouldboards.[45][46] These spread westwards across Eurasia.[47] Asian rice was domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago – depending on the molecular clock estimate that is used[48]– on the Pearl River in southern China with a single genetic origin from the wild rice Oryza rufipogon.[49] In Greece and Rome, the major cereals were wheat, emmer, and barley, alongside vegetables including peas, beans, and olives. Sheep and goats were kept mainly for dairy products.[50][51]

在中国地区，公元前5世纪开始出现谷仓建筑，以及以获取丝绸为目的的蚕业。[42]公元1世纪开始使用水磨[43]和水利灌溉[44]，公元2世纪晚期开始出现带有金属犁铧和犁板的重型犁[45][46]，随后这些技术向西在欧亚大陆传播。[47]借助基因分子钟估算，亚洲水稻的驯化时间大约在8,200-13,500年前[48]，驯化地点位于中国西南部的珠江流域，原始物种为野生稻（Oryza rufipogon）。[49]古希腊和古罗马种植的主要谷物为小麦、二粒小麦和大麦，蔬菜包括豌豆、大豆和橄榄，绵羊和山羊养殖主要是为获取奶制品。[50][51]

古埃及壁画中的农业活动场景，公元前15世纪。

In the Americas, crops domesticated in Mesoamerica (apart from teosinte) include squash, beans, and cacao.[52] Cocoa was being domesticated by the Mayo Chinchipe of the upper Amazon around 3,000 BC.[53] The turkey was probably domesticated in Mexico or the American Southwest.[54] The Aztecs developed irrigation systems, formed terraced hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed chinampas or artificial islands. The Mayas used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland from 400 BC.[55][56][57][58][59] Coca was domesticated in the Andes, as were the peanut, tomato, tobacco, and pineapple.[52] Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 3,600 BC.[60] Animals including llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs were domesticated there.[61] In North America, the indigenous people of the East domesticated crops such as sunflower, tobacco,[62] squash and Chenopodium.[63][64] Wild foods including wild rice and maple sugar were harvested.[65] The domesticated strawberry is a hybrid of a Chilean and a North American species, developed by breeding in Europe and North America.[66] The indigenous people of the Southwest and the Pacific Northwest practiced forest gardening and fire-stick farming. The natives controlled fire on a regional scale to create a low-intensity fire ecology that sustained a low-density agriculture in loose rotation; a sort of "wild" permaculture.[67][68][69][70] A system of companion planting called the Three Sisters was developed in North America. The three crops were winter squash, maize, and climbing beans.[71][72]

中美洲驯化的谷物有南瓜、大豆、可可[52]，其中可可是由居住在亚马孙河上游的馬由-欽奇佩文化（英语：Mayo-Chinchipe）先民驯化，时间大约在公元前3,000年。[53]火鸡可能在墨西哥或美洲西南部驯化。[54]中美洲阿茲特克人发展了灌溉系统，在山坡上耕作梯田，为土壤施肥，建造人工浮田和人工岛。生活在美洲中部的玛雅人从公元前400年开始建造大量人工河道，以在沼泽地带开拓农田。[55][56][57][58][59]古柯由南美洲安第斯山脉先民驯化，在同一地区驯化的作物还有花生、番茄、烟草和菠萝。[52]棉花在公元前3,600年的秘鲁驯化[60]，同在此地驯化的动物还包括羊驼、大羊驼、豚鼠。[61]北美东部原住民驯化了向日葵、烟草[62]、南瓜和藜属作物[63][64]，人们也从野外采集野生稻米和枫糖。[65]人工驯化的草莓源自智利和北美野生物种的杂交，后由欧洲与北美人进一步驯化。[66]北美西南部和太平洋西北地区原住民种植树林，并有计划的引燃林火。原住民会控制树林火势，将其限制在特定区域，借此创造有利于农业持续发展的林火生态（英语：Fire ecology）。[67][68][69][70]北美原住民还发展了一种名为“三姐妹（英语：Three Sisters (agriculture)）”的同伴种植（英语：Companion planting）系统，这三种作物为冬南瓜（英语：Winter squash）、玉米和荷包豆。[71][72]

Indigenous Australians, long supposed to have been nomadic hunter-gatherers, practised systematic burning, possibly to enhance natural productivity in fire-stick farming.[73] Scholars have pointed out that hunter-gatherers need a productive environment to support gathering without cultivation. Because the forests of New Guinea have few food plants, early humans may have used "selective burning" to increase the productivity of the wild karuka fruit trees to support the hunter-gatherer way of life.[74]

普遍认为澳大利亚原住民是游牧的狩猎采集者，他们会有计划地在野外放火，可能是为了增加火棍农耕（英语：fire-stick farming）中野生作物的产量。[73]学者指出，狩猎采集者需要让周围环境中野生作物产量维持在特定水平，只有这样才可在不耕作的情况下满足生存需求。新几内亚森林中可食用植物较为稀少，因此当地先民可能会实行“选择性放火”，以提高野生高大贝叶棕（英语：Corypha utan）的果实产量。[74]

The Gunditjmara and other groups developed eel farming and fish trapping systems from some 5,000 years ago.[75] There is evidence of 'intensification' across the whole continent over that period.[76] In two regions of Australia, the central west coast and eastern central, early farmers cultivated yams, native millet, and bush onions, possibly in permanent settlements.[31][77]

澳大利亚貢迪吉馬拉人（英语：Gunditjmara）自5,000年开始饲养鳗鱼。[75]澳洲中西部海岸和中东部海岸先民曾种植山药、本地小米、野洋葱（bush onion），种植地点或许是位于其永久定居点。[31][77]

晚近时期农业发展

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意大利人彼得羅·德爾·克雷森齊（英语：Pietro de' Crescenzi）于公元1470年创作的农业日历。

In the Middle Ages, compared to the Roman period, agriculture in Western Europe became more focused on self-sufficiency. The agricultural population under feudalism was typically organized into manors consisting of several hundred or more acres of land presided over by a Lord with a Roman Catholic church and priest.[78]

Thanks to the exchange with the Al-Andalus where the Arab Agricultural Revolution was underway, European agriculture transformed with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction of sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees (such as the orange).[79]

相比罗马时期，中世纪欧洲人更注重农业的自给自足。农业人口在封建制度下组织成大型庄园，这些庄园通常有上百英亩土地，土地所有者一般是罗马天主教会及其牧师。[78]得益于阿拉伯农业革命成果传播，欧洲农业取得了许多新的技术，并引入了新的栽培物种，稻米、棉花和果树。[79]

After 1492 the Columbian exchange brought New World crops such as maize, potatoes, tomatoes, sweet potatoes and manioc to Europe, and Old World crops such as wheat, barley, rice and turnips, and livestock (including horses, cattle, sheep and goats) to the Americas.[80]

15世纪哥伦布发现美洲后，旧大陆与新大陆之间交换了大量农业产品，美洲大陆的玉米、马铃薯、番茄、番薯、木薯等作物传入欧洲，而旧世界的小麦、大麦、稻米、芜菁等作物，以及马、牛、绵羊、山羊等牲畜传入新大陆。[80]

Irrigation, crop rotation, and fertilizers advanced from the 17th century with the British Agricultural Revolution, allowing global population to rise significantly. Since 1900 agriculture in developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has seen large rises in productivity as mechanization replaces human labor, and assisted by synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and selective breeding. The Haber-Bosch method allowed the synthesis of ammonium nitrate fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly increasing crop yields and sustaining a further increase in global population.[81][82] Modern agriculture has raised or encountered ecological, political, and economic issues including water pollution, biofuels, genetically modified organisms, tariffs and farm subsidies, leading to alternative approaches such as the organic movement.[83][84] In the 1930, there was a Dust Bowl in the United States with tragic consequences.[85]

自17世纪英国农业革命后，灌溉、轮作、化肥技术的发展促使世界人口快速增长。而自20世纪以来，发达国家逐渐以机械自动化设备取代农业中的人工劳作，并利用合成肥料、杀虫剂和选择育种协助农业工作。德国化学家弗里茨·哈伯提出的哈伯法可大量生产硝酸铵，其作为一种重要的肥料，极大提高了农业产量，促进20世纪人口的迅速增长。[81][82]不过，现代农业也引发了许多生态环境、政治、经济相关议题，例如水污染、生物燃料、转基因作物、关税、农业补贴等，这些问题促使人们开始关注有机农业。[83][84]

Types

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Reindeer herds form the basis of pastoral agriculture for several Arctic and Subarctic peoples.
Harvesting wheat with a combine harvester accompanied by a tractor and trailer

Pastoralism involves managing domesticated animals. In nomadic pastoralism, herds of livestock are moved from place to place in search of pasture, fodder, and water. This type of farming is practised in arid and semi-arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India.[86]

Spreading manure by hand in Zambia

In shifting cultivation, a small area of forest is cleared by cutting and burning the trees. The cleared land is used for growing crops for a few years until the soil becomes too infertile, and the area is abandoned. Another patch of land is selected and the process is repeated. This type of farming is practiced mainly in areas with abundant rainfall where the forest regenerates quickly. This practice is used in Northeast India, Southeast Asia, and the Amazon Basin.[87]

Subsistence farming is practiced to satisfy family or local needs alone, with little left over for transport elsewhere. It is intensively practiced in Monsoon Asia and South-East Asia.[88] An estimated 2.5 billion subsistence farmers worked in 2018, cultivating about 60% of the earth's arable land.[89]

Intensive farming is cultivation to maximise productivity, with a low fallow ratio and a high use of inputs (water, fertilizer, pesticide and automation). It is practiced mainly in developed countries.[90][91]

Contemporary agriculture

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Status

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From the twentieth century onwards, intensive agriculture increased crop productivity. It substituted synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labour, but caused increased water pollution, and often involved farm subsidies. Soil degradation and diseases such as stem rust are major concerns globally;[92] approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.[93][94] In recent years there has been a backlash against the environmental effects of conventional agriculture, resulting in the organic, regenerative, and sustainable agriculture movements.[83][95] One of the major forces behind this movement has been the European Union, which first certified organic food in 1991 and began reform of its Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies,[96] also known as decoupling. The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as integrated pest management, selective breeding,[97] and controlled-environment agriculture.[98][99] There are concerns about the lower yield associated with organic farming and its impact on global food security.[100] Recent mainstream technological developments include genetically modified food.[101]

Development of agricultural output of China in 2015 US$ since 1961

By 2015, the agricultural output of China was the largest in the world, followed by the European Union, India and the United States.[102] Economists measure the total factor productivity of agriculture, according to which agriculture in the United States is roughly 1.7 times more productive than it was in 1948.[103]

Despite increases in agricultural production and productivity,[104] between 702 and 828 million people were affected by hunger in 2021.[105] Food insecurity and malnutrition can be the result of conflict, climate extremes and variability and economic swings.[104] It can also be caused by a country’s structural characteristics such as income status and natural resource endowments as well as its political economy.[104]

The International Fund for Agricultural Development posits that an increase in smallholder agriculture may be part of the solution to concerns about food prices and overall food security, given the favorable experience of Vietnam.[106]

Workforce

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Agriculture provides about one-quarter of all global employment, more than half in sub-Saharan Africa and almost 60 percent in low-income countries.[107] As countries develop, other jobs have historically pulled workers away from agriculture, and labour-saving innovations increase agricultural productivity by reducing labour requirements per unit of output.[108][109][110] Over time, a combination of labour supply and labour demand trends have driven down the share of population employed in agriculture.[111]

On the three-sector theory, the proportion of people working in agriculture (left-hard bar in each group, green) falls as an economy becomes more developed.

During the 16th century in Europe, between 55 and 75% of the population was engaged in agriculture; by the 19th century, this had dropped to between 35 and 65%.[112] In the same countries today, the figure is less than 10%.[113] At the start of the 21st century, some one billion people, or over 1/3 of the available work force, were employed in agriculture. This constitutes approximately 70% of the global employment of children, and in many countries constitutes the largest percentage of women of any industry.[114] The service sector overtook the agricultural sector as the largest global employer in 2007.[115]

In many developed countries, immigrants help fill labour shortages in high-value agriculture activities that are difficult to mechanize.[116] Foreign farm workers from mostly Eastern Europe, North Africa and South Asia constituted around one-third of the salaried agricultural workforce in Spain, Italy, Greece and Portugal in 2013.[117][118][119][120] In the United States of America, more than half of all hired farmworkers (roughly 450,000 workers) were immigrants in 2019, although the number of new immigrants arriving in the country to work in agriculture has fallen by 75 percent in recent years and rising wages indicate this has led to a major labor shortage on U.S. farms.[121][122]

Around the world, women make up a large share of the population employed in agriculture.[123] This share is growing in all developing regions except East and Southeast Asia where women already make up about 50 percent of the agricultural workforce.[123] Women make up 47 percent of the agricultural workforce in sub-Saharan Africa, a rate that has not changed significantly in the past few decades.[123] However, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) posits that the roles and responsibilities of women in agriculture may be changing – for example, from subsistence farming to wage employment, and from contributing household members to primary producers in the context of male-out-migration.[123]

Safety

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主条目：Agricultural safety and health
Rollover protection bar retrofitted to a mid-20th century Fordson tractor

Agriculture, specifically farming, remains a hazardous industry, and farmers worldwide remain at high risk of work-related injuries, lung disease, noise-induced hearing loss, skin diseases, as well as certain cancers related to chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. On industrialized farms, injuries frequently involve the use of agricultural machinery, and a common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in developed countries is tractor rollovers.[124] Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can be hazardous to worker health, and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illness or have children with birth defects.[125] As an industry in which families commonly share in work and live on the farm itself, entire families can be at risk for injuries, illness, and death.[126] Ages 0–6 May be an especially vulnerable population in agriculture;[127] common causes of fatal injuries among young farm workers include drowning, machinery and motor accidents, including with all-terrain vehicles.[126][127][128]

The International Labour Organization considers agriculture "one of the most hazardous of all economic sectors".[114] It estimates that the annual work-related death toll among agricultural employees is at least 170,000, twice the average rate of other jobs. In addition, incidences of death, injury and illness related to agricultural activities often go unreported.[129] The organization has developed the Safety and Health in Agriculture Convention, 2001, which covers the range of risks in the agriculture occupation, the prevention of these risks and the role that individuals and organizations engaged in agriculture should play.[114]

In the United States, agriculture has been identified by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda to identify and provide intervention strategies for occupational health and safety issues.[130][131] In the European Union, the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work has issued guidelines on implementing health and safety directives in agriculture, livestock farming, horticulture, and forestry.[132] The Agricultural Safety and Health Council of America (ASHCA) also holds a yearly summit to discuss safety.[133]

Production

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主条目：List of countries by GDP sector composition
参见：List of most important agricultural crops worldwide
Value of agricultural production, 2016[134]

Overall production varies by country as listed.

Crop cultivation systems

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Slash and burn shifting cultivation, Thailand

Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources and constraints; geography and climate of the farm; government policy; economic, social and political pressures; and the philosophy and culture of the farmer.[135][136]

Shifting cultivation (or slash and burn) is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation of annual and then perennial crops for a period of several years.[137] Then the plot is left fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot, returning after many more years (10–20). This fallow period is shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients (fertilizer or manure) and some manual pest control. Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs.[137]

Intercropping of coconut and Mexican marigold

Further industrialization led to the use of monocultures, when one cultivar is planted on a large acreage. Because of the low biodiversity, nutrient use is uniform and pests tend to build up, necessitating the greater use of pesticides and fertilizers.[136] Multiple cropping, in which several crops are grown sequentially in one year, and intercropping, when several crops are grown at the same time, are other kinds of annual cropping systems known as polycultures.[137]

In subtropical and arid environments, the timing and extent of agriculture may be limited by rainfall, either not allowing multiple annual crops in a year, or requiring irrigation. In all of these environments perennial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate) and systems are practiced such as agroforestry. In temperate environments, where ecosystems were predominantly grassland or prairie, highly productive annual farming is the dominant agricultural system.[137]

Important categories of food crops include cereals, legumes, forage, fruits and vegetables.[138] Natural fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax.[139] Specific crops are cultivated in distinct growing regions throughout the world. Production is listed in millions of metric tons, based on FAO estimates.[138]

Livestock production systems

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主条目：Livestock和Animal husbandry
参见：List of domesticated animals
Intensively farmed pigs

Animal husbandry is the breeding and raising of animals for meat, milk, eggs, or wool, and for work and transport.[140] Working animals, including horses, mules, oxen, water buffalo, camels, llamas, alpacas, donkeys, and dogs, have for centuries been used to help cultivate fields, harvest crops, wrangle other animals, and transport farm products to buyers.[141]

Livestock production systems can be defined based on feed source, as grassland-based, mixed, and landless.[142] 截至2010年 (2010-Missing required parameter 1=month!), 30% of Earth's ice- and water-free area was used for producing livestock, with the sector employing approximately 1.3 billion people. Between the 1960s and the 2000s, there was a significant increase in livestock production, both by numbers and by carcass weight, especially among beef, pigs and chickens, the latter of which had production increased by almost a factor of 10. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens, also showed significant production increases. Global cattle, sheep and goat populations are expected to continue to increase sharply through 2050.[143] Aquaculture or fish farming, the production of fish for human consumption in confined operations, is one of the fastest growing sectors of food production, growing at an average of 9% a year between 1975 and 2007.[144]

During the second half of the 20th century, producers using selective breeding focused on creating livestock breeds and crossbreeds that increased production, while mostly disregarding the need to preserve genetic diversity. This trend has led to a significant decrease in genetic diversity and resources among livestock breeds, leading to a corresponding decrease in disease resistance and local adaptations previously found among traditional breeds.[145]

Raising chickens intensively for meat in a broiler house

Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such as shrubland, rangeland, and pastures for feeding ruminant animals. Outside nutrient inputs may be used, however manure is returned directly to the grassland as a major nutrient source. This system is particularly important in areas where crop production is not feasible because of climate or soil, representing 30–40 million pastoralists.[137] Mixed production systems use grassland, fodder crops and grain feed crops as feed for ruminant and monogastric (one stomach; mainly chickens and pigs) livestock. Manure is typically recycled in mixed systems as a fertilizer for crops.[142]

Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm, representing the de-linking of crop and livestock production found more prevalently in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development member countries. Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon for crop production and manure use becomes a challenge as well as a source for pollution.[142] Industrialized countries use these operations to produce much of the global supplies of poultry and pork. Scientists estimate that 75% of the growth in livestock production between 2003 and 2030 will be in confined animal feeding operations, sometimes called factory farming. Much of this growth is happening in developing countries in Asia, with much smaller amounts of growth in Africa.[143] Some of the practices used in commercial livestock production, including the usage of growth hormones, are controversial.[146]

Production practices

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Tilling an arable field
更多信息：Tillage、Crop rotation和Irrigation

Tillage is the practice of breaking up the soil with tools such as the plow or harrow to prepare for planting, for nutrient incorporation, or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to no-till. It can improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil more prone to erosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing CO2, and reduces the abundance and diversity of soil organisms.[147][148]

Pest control includes the management of weeds, insects, mites, and diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological (biocontrol), mechanical (tillage), and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include crop rotation, culling, cover crops, intercropping, composting, avoidance, and resistance. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause economic loss, and recommends pesticides as a last resort.[149]

Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method of use of manure produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers, manure, green manure, compost and minerals.[150] Crop nutrient use may also be managed using cultural techniques such as crop rotation or a fallow period. Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing, such as in managed intensive rotational grazing, or by spreading either dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland or pastures.[147][151]

A center pivot irrigation system

Water management is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world.[137] Some farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the Great Plains in the U.S. and Canada, farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture for the following year.[152] Recent technological innovations in precision agriculture allow for water status monitoring and automate water usage, leading to more efficient management.[153] Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide.[154] However, water withdrawal ratios for agriculture vary significantly by income level. In least developed countries and landlocked developing countries, water withdrawal ratios for agriculture are as high as 90 percent of total water withdrawals and about 60 percent in Small Island Developing States.[155]

According to 2014 report by the International Food Policy Research Institute, agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other. Using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, the International Food Policy Research Institute found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half.[156]

Payment for ecosystem services is a method of providing additional incentives to encourage farmers to conserve some aspects of the environment. Measures might include paying for reforestation upstream of a city, to improve the supply of fresh water.[157]

Agricultural automation

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Different definitions exist for agricultural automation and for the variety of tools and technologies that are used to automate production. One view is that agricultural automation refers to autonomous navigation by robots without human intervention.[158] Alternatively it is defined as the accomplishment of production tasks through mobile, autonomous, decision-making, mechatronic devices.[159] However, FAO finds that these definitions do not capture all the aspects and forms of automation, such as robotic milking machines that are static, most motorized machinery that automates the performing of agricultural operations, and digital tools (e.g. sensors) that automate only diagnosis.[153] FAO defines agricultural automation as the use of machinery and equipment in agricultural operations to improve their diagnosis, decision-making or performing, reducing the drudgery of agricultural work and/or improving the timeliness, and potentially the precision, of agricultural operations.[160]

The technological evolution in agriculture has involved a progressive move from manual tools to animal traction, to motorized mechanization, to digital equipment and finally, to robotics with artificial intelligence (AI).[160] Motorized mechanization using engine power automates the performance of agricultural operations such as ploughing and milking.[161] With digital automation technologies, it also becomes possible to automate diagnosis and decision-making of agricultural operations.[160] For example, autonomous crop robots can harvest and seed crops, while drones can gather information to help automate input application.[153] Precision agriculture often employs such automation technologies.[153] Motorized machines are increasingly complemented, or even superseded, by new digital equipment that automates diagnosis and decision-making.[161] A conventional tractor, for example, can be converted into an automated vehicle allowing it to sow a field autonomously.[161]

Motorized mechanization has increased significantly across the world in recent years, although reliable global data with broad country coverage exist only for tractors and only up to 2009.[162] Sub-Saharan Africa is the only region where the adoption of motorized mechanization has stalled over the past decades.[153][163]

Automation technologies are increasingly used for managing livestock, though evidence on adoption is lacking. Global automatic milking system sales have increased over recent years,[164] but adoption is likely mostly in Northern Europe,[165] and likely almost absent in low- and middle-income countries. Automated feeding machines for both cows and poultry also exist, but data and evidence regarding their adoption trends and drivers is likewise scarce.[166][153]

Measuring the overall employment impacts of agricultural automation is difficult because it requires large amounts of data tracking all the transformations and the associated reallocation of workers both upstream and downstream.[160] While automation technologies reduce labour needs for the newly automated tasks, they also generate new labour demand for other tasks, such as equipment maintenance and operation.[153] Agricultural automation can also stimulate employment by allowing producers to expand production and by creating other agrifood systems jobs.[167] This is especially true when it happens in context of rising scarcity of rural labour, as is the case in high-income countries and many middle-income countries.[167] On the other hand, if forcedly promoted, for example through government subsidies in contexts of abundant rural labour, it can lead to labour displacement and falling or stagnant wages, particularly affecting poor and low-skilled workers.[167]

Effects of climate change on yields

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主条目：Effects of climate change on agriculture
Winnowing grain: global warming will probably harm crop yields in low latitude countries like Ethiopia.

Climate change and agriculture are interrelated on a global scale. Global warming affects agriculture through changes in average temperatures, rainfall, and weather extremes (like storms and heat waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods;[168] and changes in sea level.[169] Global warming is already affecting agriculture, with effects unevenly distributed across the world.[170] Future climate change will probably negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries, while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative.[170] Global warming will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups, such as the poor.[171]

Crop alteration and biotechnology

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Plant breeding

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主条目：Plant breeding
Wheat cultivar tolerant of high salinity (left) compared with non-tolerant variety

Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of years, since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans, for example, larger fruits or seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests. Significant advances in plant breeding ensued after the work of geneticist Gregor Mendel. His work on dominant and recessive alleles, although initially largely ignored for almost 50 years, gave plant breeders a better understanding of genetics and breeding techniques. Crop breeding includes techniques such as plant selection with desirable traits, self-pollination and cross-pollination, and molecular techniques that genetically modify the organism.[172]

Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and drought tolerance, eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants. Careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s improved pasture (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive X-ray and ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn (maize) and barley.[173][174]

Seedlings in a green house. This is what it looks like when seedlings are growing from plant breeding.

The Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to sharply increase yield by creating "high-yielding varieties". For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the US have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990. South American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, and Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Variations in yields are due mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, growth control to avoid lodging).[175][176][177]

Genetic engineering

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主条目：Genetic engineering
参见：Genetically modified food、Genetically modified crops、Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms和Genetically modified food controversies
Genetically modified potato plants (left) resist virus diseases that damage unmodified plants (right).

Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are organisms whose genetic material has been altered by genetic engineering techniques generally known as recombinant DNA technology. Genetic engineering has expanded the genes available to breeders to use in creating desired germlines for new crops. Increased durability, nutritional content, insect and virus resistance and herbicide tolerance are a few of the attributes bred into crops through genetic engineering.[178] For some, GMO crops cause food safety and food labeling concerns. Numerous countries have placed restrictions on the production, import or use of GMO foods and crops.[179] Currently a global treaty, the Biosafety Protocol, regulates the trade of GMOs. There is ongoing discussion regarding the labeling of foods made from GMOs, and while the EU currently requires all GMO foods to be labeled, the US does not.[180]

Herbicide-resistant seed has a gene implanted into its genome that allows the plants to tolerate exposure to herbicides, including glyphosate. These seeds allow the farmer to grow a crop that can be sprayed with herbicides to control weeds without harming the resistant crop. Herbicide-tolerant crops are used by farmers worldwide.[181] With the increasing use of herbicide-tolerant crops, comes an increase in the use of glyphosate-based herbicide sprays. In some areas glyphosate resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to switch to other herbicides.[182][183] Some studies also link widespread glyphosate usage to iron deficiencies in some crops, which is both a crop production and a nutritional quality concern, with potential economic and health implications.[184]

Other GMO crops used by growers include insect-resistant crops, which have a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which produces a toxin specific to insects. These crops resist damage by insects.[185] Some believe that similar or better pest-resistance traits can be acquired through traditional breeding practices, and resistance to various pests can be gained through hybridization or cross-pollination with wild species. In some cases, wild species are the primary source of resistance traits; some tomato cultivars that have gained resistance to at least 19 diseases did so through crossing with wild populations of tomatoes.[186]

Environmental impact

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主条目：Environmental issues with agriculture

Effects and costs

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Water pollution in a rural stream due to runoff from farming activity in New Zealand

Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive to environmental degradation, such as biodiversity loss, desertification, soil degradation and global warming, which cause decrease in crop yield.[187] Agriculture is one of the most important drivers of environmental pressures, particularly habitat change, climate change, water use and toxic emissions. Agriculture is the main source of toxins released into the environment, including insecticides, especially those used on cotton.[188][189][页码请求] The 2011 UNEP Green Economy report stated that agricultural operations produced some 13 per cent of anthropogenic global greenhouse gas emissions. This includes gases from the use of inorganic fertilizers, agro-chemical pesticides, and herbicides, as well as fossil fuel-energy inputs.[190]

Agriculture imposes multiple external costs upon society through effects such as pesticide damage to nature (especially herbicides and insecticides), nutrient runoff, excessive water usage, and loss of natural environment. A 2000 assessment of agriculture in the UK determined total external costs for 1996 of £2,343 million, or £208 per hectare.[191] A 2005 analysis of these costs in the US concluded that cropland imposes approximately $5 to $16 billion ($30 to $96 per hectare), while livestock production imposes $714 million.[192] Both studies, which focused solely on the fiscal impacts, concluded that more should be done to internalize external costs. Neither included subsidies in their analysis, but they noted that subsidies also influence the cost of agriculture to society.[191][192]

Agriculture seeks to increase yield and to reduce costs. Yield increases with inputs such as fertilisers and removal of pathogens, predators, and competitors (such as weeds). Costs decrease with increasing scale of farm units, such as making fields larger; this means removing hedges, ditches and other areas of habitat. Pesticides kill insects, plants and fungi. These and other measures have cut biodiversity to very low levels on intensively farmed land.[193] Effective yields fall with on-farm losses, which may be caused by poor production practices during harvesting, handling, and storage.[194]

The environmental effects of climate change show that research on pests and diseases that do not generally afflict areas is essential. In 2021, farmers discovered stem rust on wheat in the Champagne area of France, a disease that had previously only occurred in Morocco for 20 to 30 years. Because of climate change, insects that used to die off over the winter are now alive and multiplying.[195][196]

Livestock issues

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Farmyard anaerobic digester converts waste plant material and manure from livestock into biogas fuel.

A senior UN official, Henning Steinfeld, said that "Livestock are one of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems".[197] Livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the planet. It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases, responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO2. It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO2) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO2.) It also generates 64% of the ammonia emission. Livestock expansion is cited as a key factor driving deforestation; in the Amazon basin 70% of previously forested area is now occupied by pastures and the remainder used for feed crops.[198] Through deforestation and land degradation, livestock is also driving reductions in biodiversity. Furthermore, the UNEP states that "methane emissions from global livestock are projected to increase by 60 per cent by 2030 under current practices and consumption patterns."[190]

Land and water issues

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参见：Environmental impact of irrigation
Circular irrigated crop fields in Kansas. Healthy, growing crops of corn and sorghum are green (sorghum may be slightly paler). Wheat is brilliant gold. Fields of brown have been recently harvested and plowed or have lain in fallow for the year.

Land transformation, the use of land to yield goods and services, is the most substantial way humans alter the Earth's ecosystems, and is the driving force causing biodiversity loss. Estimates of the amount of land transformed by humans vary from 39 to 50%.[199] Land degradation, the long-term decline in ecosystem function and productivity, is estimated to be occurring on 24% of land worldwide, with cropland overrepresented.[200] Land management is the driving factor behind degradation; 1.5 billion people rely upon the degrading land. Degradation can be through deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, mineral depletion, acidification, or salinization.[137]

Eutrophication, excessive nutrient enrichment in aquatic ecosystems resulting in algal blooms and anoxia, leads to fish kills, loss of biodiversity, and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses. Excessive fertilization and manure application to cropland, as well as high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus) runoff and leaching from agricultural land. These nutrients are major nonpoint pollutants contributing to eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems and pollution of groundwater, with harmful effects on human populations.[201] Fertilisers also reduce terrestrial biodiversity by increasing competition for light, favouring those species that are able to benefit from the added nutrients.[202] Agriculture accounts for 70 percent of withdrawals of freshwater resources.[203][204] Agriculture is a major draw on water from aquifers, and currently draws from those underground water sources at an unsustainable rate. It is long known that aquifers in areas as diverse as northern China, the Upper Ganges and the western US are being depleted, and new research extends these problems to aquifers in Iran, Mexico and Saudi Arabia.[205] Increasing pressure is being placed on water resources by industry and urban areas, meaning that water scarcity is increasing and agriculture is facing the challenge of producing more food for the world's growing population with reduced water resources.[206] Agricultural water usage can also cause major environmental problems, including the destruction of natural wetlands, the spread of water-borne diseases, and land degradation through salinization and waterlogging, when irrigation is performed incorrectly.[207]

Pesticides

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主条目：Environmental impact of pesticides
Spraying a crop with a pesticide

Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5 million short tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has remained relatively constant.[208] The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that three million pesticide poisonings occur annually, causing 220,000 deaths.[209] Pesticides select for pesticide resistance in the pest population, leading to a condition termed the "pesticide treadmill" in which pest resistance warrants the development of a new pesticide.[210]

An alternative argument is that the way to "save the environment" and prevent famine is by using pesticides and intensive high yield farming, a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues website: 'Growing more per acre leaves more land for nature'.[211][212] However, critics argue that a trade-off between the environment and a need for food is not inevitable,[213] and that pesticides can replace good agronomic practices such as crop rotation.[210] The Push–pull agricultural pest management technique involves intercropping, using plant aromas to repel pests from crops (push) and to lure them to a place from which they can then be removed (pull).[214]

Contribution to climate change

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主条目：Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture

Agriculture contributes towards climate change through greenhouse gas emissions and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forests into agricultural land.[215] The agriculture, forestry and land use sector contribute between 13% and 21% of global greenhouse gas emissions.[216] Emissions of nitrous oxide, methane make up over half of total greenhouse gas emission from agriculture.[217] Animal husbandry is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions.[218]

Sustainability

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Terraces, conservation tillage and conservation buffers reduce soil erosion and water pollution on this farm in Iowa.
主条目：Sustainable agriculture

Current farming methods have resulted in over-stretched water resources, high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. There is not enough water to continue farming using current practices; therefore how critical water, land, and ecosystem resources are used to boost crop yields must be reconsidered. A solution would be to give value to ecosystems, recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a variety of users and interests.[219] Inequities that result when such measures are adopted would need to be addressed, such as the reallocation of water from poor to rich, the clearing of land to make way for more productive farmland, or the preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing rights.[220]

Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and resources to make farming more sustainable.[221] Technology permits innovations like conservation tillage, a farming process which helps prevent land loss to erosion, reduces water pollution, and enhances carbon sequestration.[222] Other potential practices include conservation agriculture, agroforestry, improved grazing, avoided grassland conversion, and biochar.[223][224] Current mono-crop farming practices in the United States preclude widespread adoption of sustainable practices, such as 2-3 crop rotations that incorporate grass or hay with annual crops, unless negative emission goals such as soil carbon sequestration become policy.[225]

The International Food Policy Research Institute states that agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other; using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, it found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half.[156] The food demand of Earth's projected population, with current climate change predictions, could be satisfied by improvement of agricultural methods, expansion of agricultural areas, and a sustainability-oriented consumer mindset.[226]

Energy dependence

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Mechanised agriculture: from the first models in the 1940s, tools like a cotton picker could replace 50 farm workers, at the price of increased use of fossil fuel.

Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. The vast majority of this energy input comes from fossil fuel sources.[227] Between the 1960s and the 1980s, the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, with world grain production increasing significantly (between 70% and 390% for wheat and 60% to 150% for rice, depending on geographic area)[228] as world population doubled. Heavy reliance on petrochemicals has raised concerns that oil shortages could increase costs and reduce agricultural output.[229]

Industrialized agriculture depends on fossil fuels in two fundamental ways: direct consumption on the farm and manufacture of inputs used on the farm. Direct consumption includes the use of lubricants and fuels to operate farm vehicles and machinery.[229]

Indirect consumption includes the manufacture of fertilizers, pesticides, and farm machinery.[229] In particular, the production of nitrogen fertilizer can account for over half of agricultural energy usage.[230] Together, direct and indirect consumption by US farms accounts for about 2% of the nation's energy use. Direct and indirect energy consumption by U.S. farms peaked in 1979, and has since gradually declined.[229] Food systems encompass not just agriculture but off-farm processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, and disposal of food and food-related items. Agriculture accounts for less than one-fifth of food system energy use in the US.[231][232]

Plastic pollution

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主条目：Plastic pollution和plasticulture

Plastic products are used extensively in agriculture, for example to increase crop yield and improve the efficiency of water and agrichemical use. "Agriplastic" products include films to cover greenhouses and tunnels, mulch to cover soil (e.g. to suppress weeds, conserve water, increase soil temperature and aid fertilizer application), shade cloth, pesticide containers, seedling trays, protective mesh and irrigation tubing. The polymers most commonly used in these products are low- density polyethylene (LPDE), linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).[233]

The total amount of plastics used in agriculture is difficult to quantify. A 2012 study reported that almost 6.5 million tonnes per year were consumed globally while a later study estimated that global demand in 2015 was between 7.3 million and 9 million tonnes. Widespread use of plastic mulch and lack of systematic collection and management have led to the generation of large amounts of mulch residue. Weathering and degradation eventually cause the mulch to fragment. These fragments and larger pieces of plastic accumulate in soil. Mulch residue has been measured at levels of 50 to 260 kg per hectare in topsoil in areas where the mulch has been used for more than 10 years, which confirms that mulching is a major source of both microplastic and macroplastic contamination of soil.[233]

Agricultural plastics, especially plastic films, are not easy to recycle because of high contamination levels (up to 40- 50% by weight contamination by pesticides, fertilizers, soil and debris, moist vegetation, silage juice water, and UV stabilizers) and collection difficulties . Therefore, they are often buried or abandoned in fields and watercourses or burned. These disposal practices lead to soil degradation and can result in contamination of soils and leakage of microplastics into the marine environment as a result of precipitation run-off and tidal washing. In addition, additives in residual plastic film (such as UV and thermal stabilizers) may have deleterious effects on crop growth, soil structure, nutrient transport and salt levels. There is a risk that plastic mulch will deteriorate soil quality, deplete soil organic matter stocks, increase soil water repellence and emit greenhouse gases. Microplastics released through fragmentation of agricultural plastics can absorb and concentrate contaminants capable of being passed up the trophic chain.[233]

Disciplines

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Agricultural economics

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主条目：Agricultural economics
In 19th century Britain, the protectionist Corn Laws led to high prices and widespread protest, such as this 1846 meeting of the Anti-Corn Law League.[234]

Agricultural economics is economics as it relates to the "production, distribution and consumption of [agricultural] goods and services".[235] Combining agricultural production with general theories of marketing and business as a discipline of study began in the late 1800s, and grew significantly through the 20th century.[236] Although the study of agricultural economics is relatively recent, major trends in agriculture have significantly affected national and international economies throughout history, ranging from tenant farmers and sharecropping in the post-American Civil War Southern United States[237] to the European feudal system of manorialism.[238] In the United States, and elsewhere, food costs attributed to food processing, distribution, and agricultural marketing, sometimes referred to as the value chain, have risen while the costs attributed to farming have declined. This is related to the greater efficiency of farming, combined with the increased level of value addition (e.g. more highly processed products) provided by the supply chain. Market concentration has increased in the sector as well, and although the total effect of the increased market concentration is likely increased efficiency, the changes redistribute economic surplus from producers (farmers) and consumers, and may have negative implications for rural communities.[239]

National government policies can significantly change the economic marketplace for agricultural products, in the form of taxation, subsidies, tariffs and other measures.[240] Since at least the 1960s, a combination of trade restrictions, exchange rate policies and subsidies have affected farmers in both the developing and the developed world. In the 1980s, non-subsidized farmers in developing countries experienced adverse effects from national policies that created artificially low global prices for farm products. Between the mid-1980s and the early 2000s, several international agreements limited agricultural tariffs, subsidies and other trade restrictions.[241]

However, 截至2009年 (2009-Missing required parameter 1=month!), there was still a significant amount of policy-driven distortion in global agricultural product prices. The three agricultural products with the most trade distortion were sugar, milk and rice, mainly due to taxation. Among the oilseeds, sesame had the most taxation, but overall, feed grains and oilseeds had much lower levels of taxation than livestock products. Since the 1980s, policy-driven distortions have seen a greater decrease among livestock products than crops during the worldwide reforms in agricultural policy.[240] Despite this progress, certain crops, such as cotton, still see subsidies in developed countries artificially deflating global prices, causing hardship in developing countries with non-subsidized farmers.[242] Unprocessed commodities such as corn, soybeans, and cattle are generally graded to indicate quality, affecting the price the producer receives. Commodities are generally reported by production quantities, such as volume, number or weight.[243]

Agricultural science

[编辑]
主条目：Agricultural science
更多信息：Agronomy
An agronomist mapping a plant genome

Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. It covers topics such as agronomy, plant breeding and genetics, plant pathology, crop modelling, soil science, entomology, production techniques and improvement, study of pests and their management, and study of adverse environmental effects such as soil degradation, waste management, and bioremediation.[244][245]

The scientific study of agriculture began in the 18th century, when Johann Friedrich Mayer conducted experiments on the use of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) as a fertilizer.[246] Research became more systematic when in 1843, John Lawes and Henry Gilbert began a set of long-term agronomy field experiments at Rothamsted Research Station in England; some of them, such as the Park Grass Experiment, are still running.[247][248] In America, the Hatch Act of 1887 provided funding for what it was the first to call "agricultural science", driven by farmers' interest in fertilizers.[249] In agricultural entomology, the USDA began to research biological control in 1881; it instituted its first large program in 1905, searching Europe and Japan for natural enemies of the gypsy moth and brown-tail moth, establishing parasitoids (such as solitary wasps) and predators of both pests in the USA.[250][251][252]

Policy

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主条目：Agricultural policy
Direct subsidies for animal products and feed by OECD countries in 2012, in billions of US dollars[253]
Product Subsidy
Beef and veal 18.0
Milk 15.3
Pigs 7.3
Poultry 6.5
Soybeans 2.3
Eggs 1.5
Sheep 1.1

Agricultural policy is the set of government decisions and actions relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural product markets. Some overarching themes include risk management and adjustment (including policies related to climate change, food safety and natural disasters), economic stability (including policies related to taxes), natural resources and environmental sustainability (especially water policy), research and development, and market access for domestic commodities (including relations with global organizations and agreements with other countries).[254] Agricultural policy can also touch on food quality, ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality, food security, ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs, and conservation. Policy programs can range from financial programs, such as subsidies, to encouraging producers to enroll in voluntary quality assurance programs.[255]

There are many influences on the creation of agricultural policy, including consumers, agribusiness, trade lobbies and other groups. Agribusiness interests hold a large amount of influence over policy making, in the form of lobbying and campaign contributions. Political action groups, including those interested in environmental issues and labor unions, also provide influence, as do lobbying organizations representing individual agricultural commodities.[256] The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger and provides a forum for the negotiation of global agricultural regulations and agreements. Samuel Jutzi, director of FAO's animal production and health division, states that lobbying by large corporations has stopped reforms that would improve human health and the environment. For example, proposals in 2010 for a voluntary code of conduct for the livestock industry that would have provided incentives for improving standards for health, and environmental regulations, such as the number of animals an area of land can support without long-term damage, were successfully defeated due to large food company pressure.[257]

See also

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主条目：Outline of agriculture

References

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 本条目包含了自由内容作品内的文本。 在CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO下释出（许可证声明）: 《Drowning in Plastics – Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics》, United Nations Environment Programme. 欲了解如何向维基百科条目内添加开放许可证文本，请见这里；欲知如何重用本站文字，请见使用条款。

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 本条目包含了自由内容作品内的文本。（许可证声明）: 《In Brief to The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. Leveraging automation in agriculture for transforming agrifood systems》, FAO, FAO. 欲了解如何向维基百科条目内添加开放许可证文本，请见这里；欲知如何重用本站文字，请见使用条款。

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