妖魔化
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妖魔化（英語：Demonizing the enemy、Demonization of the enemy或Dehumanization of the enemy[1]，直譯：政敵妖魔化、政敵非人化）是一種將敵手宣傳為只有破壞性目標的邪惡侵略者的國家政治宣傳技巧[2]，是一種訴諸仇恨、涉及人身攻擊、人格謀殺和抹黑的策略。妖魔化是最古老的宣傳技巧，旨在激發對敵人的仇恨使之更易被打擊，起到保護和動員盟友，使敵人沮喪的效果。[3]
一個被認為是妖魔化行徑的例子是中共對法輪功的指控，西方學者Daniel Wright和Joseph Fewsmith提到，在法輪功於7月22日被宣佈為非法後，中國中央電視台每晚半小時的新聞聯播，從頭至尾渲染反法輪功，在節目中專家、前法輪功練習者、普通居民紛紛發言指控法輪功欺騙信徒、分離家庭、損害健康、影響社會穩定；除此之外，晚間新聞幾乎沒有其他內容；對此，這兩位學者認為：「這種政府操作完全是在妖魔化的分析」[4]
「妖魔化」一詞並不僅限於形容政治人物的行為，也可用以形容任何人的行為。像卡維波就曾在破報上發過一篇題為《我們需要妖魔化強姦犯嗎？》的文章。[5]
基本準則
[編輯]由於術語妖魔化的頻繁誤用，學者已不再分析它的可能語氣。這就是為什麼朱爾斯·博伊科夫定義了妖魔化的四個準則：[6]
- 媒體和國家都使用框架來描繪主要在道德層面的所謂的敵人的固有本性。
- 敵人的性格是以摩尼教的方式描繪的，正如正義與邪惡的較量。
- 國家是這種妖魔化描繪的起源。
- 沒有來自國家的重大反訴。
歷史
[編輯]在歷史上，妖魔化敵人是慣用宣傳技巧。修昔底德記錄了古希臘時期妖魔化敵人的例子。[7]
菲利普·奈特利認為妖魔化敵方（首個敵對勢力領導人和隨後的敵對個人）成為西方媒體的可預測模式，最後階段是暴行。[8]
二戰期間，美國國務院和美國其他國家機構在批准後分發了載有敵方妖魔化和揮舞國旗的愛國主義宣傳紀錄片。[9]
個人妖魔化
[編輯]如果具體到個人，則將敵方妖魔化就更容易進行，例如在一戰期間威廉二世被俄國大眾媒體妖魔化。[10]
後果
[編輯]我認為避免威脅和使用侮辱性語言是男人謹慎行事的標誌，因為這兩件事都不會剝奪敵人的力量，但第一件事讓他更加警惕，而另一個則加劇了他對你的仇恨，使他更加勤奮地設計傷害你的手段。
— 尼科洛·馬基雅弗利
將敵人妖魔化的戰略不可避免地導致了暴行的惡性循環，許多作家都對此進行了闡述，其中包括卡爾·馮·克勞塞維茨。[11]將敵人妖魔化使得外交解決途徑不可行，不可避免地導致了戰爭或關係惡化。[12]尤其是把敵人描繪成邪惡力量，更容易激起殺心。[13]
參見
[編輯]參考資料
[編輯]- ^ Dower, Nigel. The Ethics of War and Peace. Polity. 7 July 2009: 91. ISBN 978-0-7456-4168-3.
...the demonization or dehumanization of the enemy...
- ^ Danielle Rowell. The Power of Ideas: A Political Social-Psychological Theory of Democracy, Political Development and Political Communication. Universal-Publishers. October 2011: 162. ISBN 978-1-61233-769-2.
State propaganda models are tactical strategies that employ enemy demonization techniques. The state promotes the idea that the threat (that is, tangible or intangible) is an evil aggressor whose sole goal is the destruction of the status quo.
- ^ Conserva, Henry T. Propaganda Techniques. AuthorHouse. 1 February 2003: 3. ISBN 978-1-4107-0496-2.
The oldest trick of the propagandist is to demonize and dehumanize the hated other or others and make the enemy a ...
- ^ Daniel B. Wright. The Promise of Revolution: Stories of Fulfillment and Struggle in China's Hinterland. Rowman & Littlefield. 2003: 156 [26 December 2012]. ISBN 978-0-7425-1916-9.
outlawed on July 22, 1999, China Central Television's thirty-minute evening news program aired practically nothing but anti-Falun Gong rhetoric in which academics, former followers, and ordinary citizens spoke about how the cult cheats its followers, separates families, damages health, and hurt social stability. The government operation has been a study in all -out demonization. In the first seven days after the campaign began, Chinese authorities rounded up at least 5,000 Falun Gong members, ransacking homes and confiscating printed materials. Another 1200 government officials were detained and required to study Communist Party documents and to renounce any allegiance to the movement.
- ^ 卡維波. 我們需要妖魔化強姦犯嗎？. 國際邊緣. [2023-05-10]. （原始內容存檔於2022-01-05）.
- ^ Jules Boykoff. Beyond bullets: the suppression of dissent in the United States. AK Press. 2007: 192. ISBN 978-1-904859-59-8.
- ^ Jonathan J. Price. Thucydides and Internal War. Cambridge University Press. 19 July 2001: 127 [29 August 2013]. ISBN 978-1-139-42843-9.
It is a banal fact that political leaders of nations fighting wars habitually demonize the enemy.... Hellenic speakers who strive to demonize and conceptually alienate other Hellenes....
- ^ Steve Thorne. The Language of War. Routledge. 12 April 2006: 93 [6 December 2013]. ISBN 978-0-203-00659-7. （原始內容存檔於2017-04-26）.
In an article published in The Guardian (4 October 2001), Philip Knightley points out: The way wars are reported in the western media follows a depressingly predictable pattern: stage one, the crisis; stage two, the demonisation of the enemy's leader, stage three, the demonization of enemy as individuals; and stage four, atrocities.
- ^ Scott, Ian. In Capra's Shadow: The Life and Career of Screenwriter Robert Riskin. University Press of Kentucky. 1 January 2006: 169 [24 December 2013]. ISBN 0-8131-7135-0. （原始內容存檔於2017-04-26）.
They included scenes of enemy demonization and flag-waving patriotism, much in the vein of documentaries being prepared within the State Department and other bodies.
- ^ Heretz, Leonid. Russia on the Eve of Modernity: Popular Religion and Traditional Culture under the Last Tsars. Cambridge University Press. 28 February 2008: 204. ISBN 978-1-139-47066-7.
- ^ George Kassimeris; John Buckley. The Ashgate Research Companion to Modern Warfare. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. 28 March 2013: 284 [29 August 2013]. ISBN 978-1-4094-9953-4. （原始內容存檔於2017-02-15）.
When official doctrine and guidance demonize the enemy and play on soldiers' fears, atrocities become inevitable'. ... As Carl von Clausewitz noted in On War, when either side in a conflict adopts such a strategy, demonization inevitably followed by attrocities... and thus the vicious cycle of savage war endlessly repeats until one side ultimately prevails.
- ^ Hall Gardner. American Global Strategy and the 'war on Terrorism'. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. 2005: 16 [29 August 2013]. ISBN 978-1-4094-9589-5. （原始內容存檔於2017-02-15）.
- ^ Michael Bhatia. Terrorism and the Politics of Naming. Routledge. 18 October 2013: 150 [6 December 2013]. ISBN 978-1-317-96986-0. （原始內容存檔於2017-02-15）.
Demonisation... In other words, portraying the enemy as malicious and repulsive creates feelings that makes killings easier.
延伸閱讀
[編輯]- Phillip Cole, The Myth of Evil: Demonizing the Enemy, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1 January 2006 [29 August 2013], ISBN 978-0-275-99216-3
- Harry Van Der Linden; John W. Lango; Michael W. Brough. Dehumanization of the Enemy and the Moral Equality of Soldiers. Rethinking the Just War Tradition. SUNY Press. 1 February 2012: 149–167 [2017-04-25]. ISBN 978-0-7914-7969-8. （原始內容存檔於2017-03-16）.